Role of a Dysfunctional Family in Developing Childhood Trauma and Its Collective Influence on Drug Abuse

Importance of a Healthy Childhood for a Better Later Adult Life

According to the study by Milteer, Ginsburg and Mulligan (2012), healthy childhood plays a significant role in improving a child's quality of adult life. A similar author highlighted that a healthy childhood assists an individual in achieving their lifetime goals (Larkin, Felitti and Anda, 2014). According to Piotrowska et al. (2017), parents' behaviour is one of the many factors that are active in providing a healthy childhood. Kiesel, Piescher and Edleson (2016) stated that students with a less stressed home environment show good academic progress. Moreover, the study by Larkin, Felitti and Anda (2014) indicated that healthy childhood minimises the risk of developing chronic disease later in adulthood.

Whereas the study of Cook et al. (2017) highlighted that healthy childhood considerably minimises the probability of mental disorders during the adult stage. McQueen et al. (2018) agreed and stated that children prone to traumatic childhood are more likely to develop social anxiety and mental disorders in adulthood. Furthermore, the research of Kitta et al. (2016) emphasised that the physical health of individuals declines with a slower pace of a child having a healthier childhood than an individual having traumatic childhood. In contrast, the research of (Craig et al. 2017). 

Also, the dissertation of Larkin, Felitti and Anda (2014) considered healthy childhood a major determinant that minimises the risk of metabolic disorder in adulthood. According to the study of Iwamoto and Smiler (2013), self-motivation and higher self-esteem are found among adults having a healthier childhood. In contrast, the study of Milteer, Ginsburg and Mulligan (2012) regarded that healthier childhood significantly increases the morale of an individual towards life, such as the perception of higher life expectancy. 

Chapter Summary

A literature review has been provided concerning childhood trauma experiences and their role in developing dysfunctional drug usage in later life, especially among young adults. Initially, the subject of childhood trauma is reviewed, with basic concepts and causes of the trauma. It is seen in the study that abusive relationships in childhood, from physical violence to sexual violence, can impose severe trauma on a child. Other causes can be dysfunctional families, in which either of the parents is violent, abusive or addicted. These instances can increase the chances of an individual becoming a functional or dysfunctional drug addict as they grow up.

Among the major factors for developing drug abuse patterns in young adults is the background of a dysfunctional family. Such habits can greatly impact the mental health of the person as well as the family or friends of that person. In such situations, it is found that there is a chance of repeating the cycle of the same dysfunctional family from parents to children. Furthermore, data and statistics are also analysed to understand the scope of the drug use problem among young adults. It is seen that instances of drug abuse are rising, and the causes range from abusive relationships to boredom.  

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter has been written to add to the topic of childhood trauma and its effect on drug usage in young adult life. A thorough analysis has been done of available studies to explore different causes of childhood trauma and their probable effects. As Bengtsson (2016) noted, content analysis helps develop a multidimensional insight into the topic to understand it better. Therefore, the chapter has been designed in such a way that research aims are met, and research questions are answered. A discussion about the content and literature is added in the later part of the study, followed by a chapter summary. 

Critical Investigation of the Prominence of Healthy Childhood for Better Adult Life

According to the study by Campbell, Walker and Egede (2016), multiple factors affect childhood experiences and shape a person’s adult life. A similar study on the subject identified that childhood influences are critical in improving the quality of life in later adulthood (Milteer, Ginsburg and Mulligan, 2012). On the other hand, Reuben et al. (2016) argue that not all aspects of childhood affect adult life, as most are forgotten until the time a person reaches their early 20s. Therefore, it is argued that certain selected instances determine a person’s attitude in later life. 

Regarding factors affecting childhood experiences, Piotrowska et al. (2017) highlight the importance of children and parent relationships in determining the nature of a person’s upbringing. On the contrary, the research conducted by Moffitt (2013) pinpoints external factors like school bullies as critical in maintaining a healthy or unhealthy childhood. A similar study by Grohmann, Kouwenberg and Menkhoff (2015) suggests that environmental factors of finances and savings are foremost in regulating the experiences of infancy that affect life in adulthood. Among external aspects of upbringing, Sobkin et al. (2016) note that the socio-demographic characteristics of society are critical in shaping the mindset of children throughout their lifetime.  

In the context of the nature of the effect, Kiesel, Piescher and Edleson (2016) believe that childhood experiences only determine the academic excellence of a person’s life. In contrast, another study conducted on the same subject has concluded that matters of early childhood determine the physical health of the person in adulthood (Larkin, Felitti and Anda, 2014). According to this study, a person with a traumatic childhood is more prone to developing chronic illnesses than a person with a healthy childhood. To support this argument, the study of Kitta et al. (2016) has illustrated that the deterioration rate of physical health directly depends on the nature of childhood. 

Cook et al. (2017) researched the same topic and concluded that instead of physical health, early childhood experiences shape a person's mental health in later life. Another article by McQueen et al. (2018) supported the view of childhood and mental health by arguing that traumatic childhood often results in severe social anxiety in the person as an adult. A study also found that childhood experiences affect how an adult handles stress, with victims of childhood trauma being more prone to panic attacks even in non-stressful situations (Nurius et al., 2015). On the other hand, Merrick et al. (2017) believe that experiences in infancy can seriously alter the remainder of the person’s life by initiating mental disorders like depression and forcing the person to become suicidal.  

Identifying and Accessing the Factors that Cause Childhood Trauma

The study of Szilagyi et al. (2016) has identified that the majority of the factors leading to childhood trauma are due to the nature, attitude and behaviour of parents towards children. To add to the discussion, the study of Hogan et al. (2018) has illustrated that trauma in childhood is divided into two groups, intentional and unintentional. Nevertheless, parents may have been subjected to past experiences that become hindrances in their care for their children. Among unintentional causes of childhood trauma, emotional neglect is the foremost reason for distress in upbringing (Krüger and Fletcher, 2017).

This neglect gives rise to further problems, as Tashjian et al. (2016) note that sexual abuse of children usually happens in families where at least one of the parents is negligent of the child’s wellbeing. While comparing people with traumatic and healthy childhoods, Wekerle et al. (2018) found that emotional mistreatment is the biggest reason for childhood neglect and trauma. Cecil et al. (2017) have further added that emotional abuse and neglect are the most significant cause of childhood trauma and the most destructive form of trauma received in childhood. This is attributed to the fact that children that receive emotional neglect are bound to repeat the same neglect on their children when they become parents.  

In contrast, Van der Kolk (2017) has highlighted that intentional abuse or violent behaviour from parents is more problematic in causing trauma. The research of Izaguirre and Cater (2018) has pointed out the role of mishandling, bullying and aggressiveness in parents as three main factors of physical causes of trauma among children. Whereas, Oshri et al. (2017) believe that parents' emotional mistreatment and judgmental behaviour are critical regarding the reasons for childhood treatment. As Hartling and Lindner (2016) discussed, parents can be psychologically abusive by regularly projecting insults and humiliation on their children. However, Camilo, Garrido and Calheiros (2016) argue that unrealistic academic expectations and restricting children from socialising are more common forms of emotional abuse.    

Besides physical and emotional abuse, sexual mistreatment and violence are other factors that lead to childhood trauma (Bentovim, 2018). Motta (2020) denotes that sexual misconduct against children predominantly occurs from close family members or friends. Although, Moffitt (2013) believes that more cases of sexual abuse are registered where exposure in school is the primary cause of sexual misconduct among children. Furthermore, the study by Venta, Velez and Lau (2016) highlighted that children from dysfunctional families have a higher chance of being sexually assaulted, as their parents do not fully protect them. 

Critically evaluating the influence of Childhood Trauma on drug use among young adults 

According to the study by Martin et al. (2014), a range of traumas experienced by an individual at a young age leads to drug use among young adults. A similar author elaborated on the influence of childhood trauma on drug abuse while indicating that bullying has been identified as a major trauma that influences young adults to use the drug (Martin et al. 2014). However, the research of Taplin et al. (2014) indicated that community violence, such as racist comments and hostile behavior, affects young adults emotionally, which leads to drug use. Although, the research of Quinn et al. (2016) contradicted the idea by indicating that young adults tend to become drug addicts due to experiencing intimate partner violence at a young age.

A similar author regarded that physical violence between parents causes childhood trauma to their children, due to which those children begin using the drug when becoming young adults (Quinn et al. 2016). Furthermore, Wu et al. (2010) research highlighted that traumatic grief, such as the death of a close family member, makes childhood traumatic, due to which the individual tends to use the drug when becoming a young adult. Similarly, the research of Svingen et al. (2016) identified that post-traumatic stress is caused by a close family member's death that persists until the individual becomes a young adult and begins using the drug to minimize the stress. 

Additionally, the research of Wu et al. (2010) contemplated that childhood trauma is caused by physical abuse at a young age that influences young adults to use the drug. However, the study by Quinn et al. (2016) argued that emotional abuse, such as sensitive comments on being indifferent, makes childhood traumatic for individuals, due to which they become drug addicts later in life. While Taplin et al. (2014) research highlighted that sexual abuse is among the factors that affect children traumatically and leads to drug use among young adults.

Although, the study of Harley et al. (2010) indicated that the weak nurturing of a child during young age creates childhood trauma for such individuals that lead to drug use among these individuals during the young adult stage. According to the study by Porche et al. (2011), weak bonding between the parents and a child due to several factors, such as the imprisonment of a parent, creates childhood trauma for such individuals that inclines them to use the drug when becoming young adults.

Some studies, such as Svingen et al. (2016); Quinn et al. (2016), asserted that weak academic performance at a young age could also cause a young adult to use the drug. Whereas the dissertation of Porche et al. (2011) stated that parental illness restricts the adequate bonding between the parents and child, the individual inclines toward drug use when becoming a young adult. Similarly, the studies of Martin et al. (2014); Harley et al. (2010) illustrated that parental substance abuse and emotional negligence by parents make childhood traumatic that consequently motivating young adults to use the drug.

Assessing the benefits of the trauma-informed practice to social institutions

Despite the significant influence of childhood trauma on drug abuse, trauma-informed practices could still counter its negative impact. According to the research of Wilson, Fauci, and Goodman (2015), trauma-informed practices assist multiple social institutions in minimizing the effect of trauma among various groups of individuals. A similar author added that trauma-informed practices consist of four major stages: trauma aware, trauma-sensitive, trauma-responsive, and trauma-informed. These stages reduce the insecurity among victims of some trauma (Wilson, Fauci, and Goodman, 2015). The research of Knight (2015) highlighted that one of the major benefits of trauma-informed practices is it creates a proactive approach to safety.

However, the study by Brown, Harris, and Fallot (2013) stated that trauma-informed practices allow social activists to create a trauma-free environment for their clients, staff, and family. Additionally, the study of Donisch, Bray, and Gewirtz (2016) asserted that trauma-informed practices benefit the individual by preventing the occurrence of re-traumatization. Although, the study of Goodman et al. (2016) indicated that trauma-informed practices benefit social institutions by creating sustainable opportunities for empowering the victims of trauma.

At the same time, Morgan et al. (2015) research emphasized the social environment created by trauma-informed practices at social institutions that contribute to building a fruitful relationship between trauma victims. The study of Lucero and Bussey (2012) stated that one of the main benefits of trauma-informed practices is it minimizes the symptoms of trauma among the victims. However, the study by Berger, Quiros, and Benavidez-Hatzis (2018) argued that trauma-informed practices reduce the severity of drug use among traumatic individuals.

On the contrary, the dissertation of Donisch, Bray, and Gewirtz (2016) considered diminishing mental health symptoms among affected victims as a major benefit of trauma-informed practices. Additionally, Brown, Harris, and Fallot (2013) research highlighted that trauma-informed practices make the treatment of trauma cost-effective for multiple victims. Moreover, a similar author specified that trauma-informed practices promote resilience and strength within social institutions that assist them in minimizing the effect of trauma among the victims (Brown, Harris, and Fallot, 2013).

Discussion

The first objective of this research is to promote the use of the trauma-informed practice in social work. In the studies of Levenson (2017), the literature indicated that approximately 64-94% of students in college experience some trauma that affects their adult life. Similarly, the studies of Morgan et al. (2015) from content analysis highlighted that a high number of traumatic cases among young adults requires the promotion of trauma-informed practices at social institutions that can contribute to bringing sustainability to the lives of young adults. 

Furthermore, the study of Corrigan and Hull's (2018) literature emphasized the element of empathy among the staff of the social institution that improves the condition of victims of childhood trauma. However, the studies of Donisch, Bray, and Gewirtz (2016); Quiros and Benavidez-Hatzis (2018) from content analysis found that trauma-informed practices allow social activists to create a trauma-free environment for their clients, staff, and family at social institutions that facilitates their social work of promoting the trauma-informed approach in the society. 

The studies of Cicchetti and Banny (2014); Chamberlayne and Smith (2019) in literature asserted that traumatic individuals resist opening up about their traumatic experiences of childhood. Thus, using trauma-informed practices creates a comfortable environment in their surroundings and assists them in opening up. While the research of Brown, Harris, and Fallot (2013); Lucero and Bussey (2012) from content analysis illustrated that trauma-informed practices could be promoted when social work is entirely based on the resilience and strength of victims of childhood trauma.

The study's second objective is to thoroughly create a link between traumatic childhood and dysfunctional drug use in later adult life. The research of Izaguirre and Cater (2018) from literature highlighted that traumatic childhood had been one of the major reasons for dysfunctional drug use among young adults in later adult life. Similar research identified that physical abuse, such as sexual abuse during childhood, creates trauma among individuals. These people get involved in using a dysfunctional drug to minimize pain (Izaguirre and Cater, 2018). In contrast, the study of Campbell, Walker, and Egede (2016) from content analysis asserted that emotional negligence by parents in childhood creates a substantial possibility of dysfunctional drug use in later adult life due to childhood trauma.

The study by Cutuli, Alderfer, and Marsac (2019) literature stated the factors that make childhood traumatic, which were abuse, neglect, and violence. These studies focused on the influence of childhood trauma on drug abuse. The author further described that parental substance abuse highly affects a child's mental health during childhood, due to which they get highly inclined towards dysfunctional drug use in later adult life (Cutuli, Alderfer, and Marsac, 2019). However, the study of Piotrowska et al. (2017) from content analysis emphasized that physical violence, such as bullying at schools and other surroundings during childhood, is a significant determinant that causes dysfunctional drug use among young adults in later adult life.

The third objective of the study is to highlight the family support outside the home that provides the opportunity to be resilient and overcome exposure to trauma and abuse. The studies of Karson and Sparks (2013) indicated that children tend to visit several social groups of traumatic people where discussion related to their trauma and abuse occurs. A similar author elaborated that these groups respect every individual's pain and provide moral support to overcome the trauma. However, the studies of Martin et al. (2014); Harley et al. (2010) from content analysis focused on social institutions that promote trauma-informed practice among the victims of trauma so that they can overcome the issue and lead a sustainable life. 

Furthermore, the research of Crews et al. (2017) from literature emphasised support from close relatives such as uncles, aunts, and grandparents about trauma and abuse faced by children at a young age who takes responsibility for nurturing the children by themselves to minimize the exposure to trauma and abuse. While the study of Quinn et al. (2016) in content analysis contemplated that teachers in educational institutions play a dominant role in minimizing the exposure of young children to trauma and abuse as they make sure to be vigilant in identifying the issues related to trauma and abuse among young adults. 

The final objective of the study is to highlight the importance of a healthy childhood for better later adult life. The survey by surveyer, Ginsburg, and Mulligan (2012) in literature specified that healthy childhood assists an individual in achieving their lifetime goals in later adult life. Similarly, the study by Grohmann, Kouwenberg, and Menkhoff (2015) from the content analysis indicated that young adults with healthier childhood are more focused on fulfilling their dreams. Additionally, from the studies of Iwamoto and Smiler (2013); Larkin, Felitti, and Anda (2014)  in literature, it has been found that individuals with healthier childhood tend to have greater life expectancy during their adult life as compared to people with traumatic childhoods.

However, the studies of Kiesel, Piescher, and Edleson (2016) from content analysis stated that people with healthier childhood have greater self-esteem that assists them in leading prosperous life in later adulthood. Furthermore, the studies of Morrall, Worton, and Antony (2020) and Williams (2019) in literature asserted that healthy childhood significantly minimizes the probability of developing a mental disorder in adult age. However, the research of McQueen et al. (2018) from content analysis found that socio-demographic aspects of society create healthier childhood, due to which an individual leads a better adult life.

Chapter Summary 

The current chapter discussed the analysis of the study by employing the content analysis technique in which multiple secondary sources such as journals, articles, books, and magazines are used for comparing and contrasting distinct ideas related to the topic. By critically examining the content, it has been found that trauma-informed practices play prominent in improving the quality of social work performed by social institutions to eradicate the symptoms and issues of childhood trauma. Additionally, it has been evaluated that children get moral support from close relatives, teachers, and friends to minimize their exposure to trauma and abuse. Moreover, the studies found that physical, mental, and emotional abuse in early childhood plays a prominent role in promoting dysfunctional drug use in later adult life. Lastly, the findings indicated that a healthier childhood assists individuals in achieving life goals and leading sustainable adult life in the future.

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